Language Acquisition Device

Language Acquisition Device In 1965 the linguist Noam Chomsky put forward the idea that language was innate, and suggested that childrens language acquisition was supported by a Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Other linguists and psychologists, however, have their own theories of child language acquisition, three of which base the development of language on interaction with caregivers, on cognitive development, and on imitation and reinforcement respectively. At first glance, it seems that the different theories of child language acquisition contradict each other, that it would be impossible for all five theories to have an element of truth in them. When, however, you look at the theories in more detail, you realise that the way in which children acquire language is likely to be a result of the five different theories working together. By describing language as innate, Chomsky was suggesting that children are born with an internal knowledge of language, that the rules of language are inside their brains from birth, so that when they begin to speak, they will have a pre-existing knowledge of grammatical rules. This essay will demonstrate that while Chomskys LAD is undoubtedly present in children, the other theories of child language acquisition also play a role in the development of childrens language; none can be disregarded as being untrue. In 1986, Chomsky added to his theory of language innateness by putting forward the idea that the Language Acquisition Device contained a Universal Grammar, a set of basic rules of grammar that characterise all languages. This explains the fact that children from all over the world pass through similar stages, at similar ages, in the acquisition of language, despite vast cultural differences. By 5 years of age, most children have a good grasp of the basic rules of their own language. This provides strong evidence for the existence of a LAD, as if language were not innate, children from different countries and backgrounds would surely pick up different aspects of language in different orders, and all children, even those from the same backgrounds, would acquire language at different rates. Further evidence for the existence of a Language Acquisition Device comes from what was termed s-structures (surface structures) and d-structures (deep structures) (Chomsky, 1957, 1982). Different languages have different surface structures (the actual phrases used in a sentence), but they all share the same deep structures, reflecting the sentences meaning. The fact that children understand deep structures without having to be actively taught about them suggests that language is innate: children have an inborn understanding of grammatical concepts, understanding that the order of words within a sentence is important. The grammatical errors that children make during the process of acquiring language, known as overgeneralisation, also suggest that language is an innate module, thereby providing evidence for the existence of a Language Acquisition Device. Overgeneralisation occurs, for example, when children apply the past tense -ed inflection to irregular verbs such as go. Children obviously wouldnt hear an adult saying goed, which suggests that children have an inbuilt knowledge of grammatical rules: they know that to form the past tense they have to use the -ed suffix, but they arent yet aware of irregular verbs. Evidence for grammatical overgeneralisation by children comes from an experiment carried out by Brown and Bellugi in 1964, in which the early speech of two children was analysed. The -ed past tense inflection was used for irregular verbs such as come (comed) and grow (growed). Further overgeneralisation occurred when forming plurals: nouns such as sheep and tooth were made plural by addi ng the -s inflection (sheeps and tooths). Again, the two children had learnt that to make a noun plural you used the -s inflection, but they were not yet aware of nouns which didnt follow the normal grammatical rule. The fact that not all children are exposed to Child Directed Speech provides further evidence for the innate nature of language. The cultures of the islands which lie in the South Pacific Ocean, for example, believe that such ways of speaking actually interfere with a childs language development. Infants in countries such as Samoa and Papua New Guinea, therefore, do not hear modified forms of language: all they hear is their native language in all its complexity. Despite the fact that the only language they are exposed to is the standard, unaltered form of their native language, infants in such countries pick up language at much the same rate and just as quickly as infants who are exposed to simplified forms of language, who are exposed to Child Directed Speech. This points clearly to the fact that language is innate, as if it wasnt, children in such countries would arguably acquire language at a later age, as a result of them not being exposed to simplified forms of language. A final piece of evidence for the existence of a Language Acquisition Device is the fact that language is specific only to humans. No other species spontaneously develops language in the way that humans do. This fact, coupled with the relative speed and ease with which children acquire their first language, provides substantial evidence for the existence of a LAD, especially as language is far too complex to be taught completely from scratch. Despite all of this evidence supporting the existence of a Language Acquisition Device, there are some factors which would throw the existence of the LAD into doubt. One such factor is the fact that feral children, along with children who have suffered extreme cases of abuse and neglect fail to master language, beyond the basics, even when taught by specialists. One such case is that of Genie (Curtiss, 1977). Up to the age of 13, from the age of approximately 20 months, Genie was kept in an isolated room with practically no human contact. Upon being rescued, Genie successfully learnt vocabulary, although she failed to understand the rules behind grammar, and as a result was only able to master three-word utterances as a result of the lack of attention and interaction she received throughout her infancy and childhood. This situation has been found to be the case with feral children, and with other victims of extreme child abuse. The inability to master grammatical rules, and therefore to speak in grammatically correct and complete sentences, can be explained by the Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967), which theorises that language learning is easiest before a certain age. Combining the fact that feral children and abused children fail to master anything but the basics of language with the Critical Period Hypothesis provides evidence against the existence of a LAD. If language were innate, as Chomsky suggested, such children would be able to acquire language, however old they were when rescued, as it would simply be a matter of learning the vocabulary; they would have the grammatical rules already in place. The fact that they are unable to suggests that something else is required: this is where the other theorists of child language acquisition come in. One such alternative theory of childrens acquisition of language is the Behaviourist Account, associated with the psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner, 1957, suggested that children acquire language through a process known as operant conditioning. In a linguistic sense, this means that when a child uses language correctly, in terms of both the lexis and the grammar, they are rewarded in various ways. Due to these rewards, children are motivated to repeat the behaviour, thereby shaping their language and ensuring that it develops successfully. Another theory which goes against that set out by Chomsky is the Cognition Theory. Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist, believed that cognitive development (the development of mental abilities and skills) was the overriding influence on the development of language, with language being neither innate nor learned passively. Piagets theory focuses on the precursors of early language, such as gestures and facial expressions, as Piaget claimed that in the first two years of life, the childs intellectual skills rely on sensori-motor experiences such as seeing, hearing and touching, as opposed to on words and images. While Piaget agreed with Chomsky in the sense that children develop a set of rules, he believed that rather than being innate, they came instead from a wider cognitive system, whereby children form schemas to help explain events in their lives, and then they are able to talk about them. Piagets concept of Object Permanence helps to support his cognition theory, in turn pr oviding evidence against the existence of a Language Acquisition Device. Before 18 months of age, infants are egocentric, as they cant mentally process the concept that something can exist outside of their immediate surroundings. By the time they are 18 months old, however, they have developed a sense of object permanence, realising that objects exist all of the time, even when the infant cant see them. The development of object permanence coincides with a substantial increase in vocabulary: if, as Chomsky suggested, language was innate and children possessed a LAD, object permanence wouldnt take such a long time to develop, as they would have a sufficient level of development to understand that an object couldnt and wouldnt just disappear. A further theory which helps to question the existence of Chomskys Language Acquisition Device is that of the psychologist Jerome Bruner. Bruners interactionist theory stresses the role of linguistic interaction from caregivers in a childs language development. This theory doesnt completely disprove the existence of the LAD; rather it suggests that something else is needed. Bruner suggested that children have a Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), whereby caregivers support their childs acquisition of language in social situations. A final theory which provides evidence against the existence of the Language Acquisition Device is that put forward by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky: the Socio-Cultural theory. The main tenet of this theory is that both social interaction and experiencing different social and cultural contexts are important for the development of language. Two significant factors which contribute to language development were identified: Private Speech (when a child talks aloud to itself, providing evidence that they are thinking for themselves) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which occurs when a child needs the help of a caregiver in order to interact. The caregiver will either respond for the child, or will try to encourage a response from the child, both of which provide the child with a model to apply to similar situations in the future. This essay has discussed both evidence for and against the existence of Language Acquisition Device as proposed by Chomsky. The existence of the LAD has been challenged not only by other theories of child language acquisition but also by individual cases of feral and abused children. As the evidence set out in the essay suggests, the existence of Chomskys LAD cannot be disproved completely, as arguing that it didnt exist would put too many things down to coincidence, examples being that children the world over pass through similar stages of language development, and that children instinctively apply grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns, leading to overgeneralisation. You cant, however, simply disregard the work of other psychologist and linguists, as they all carried out their research to prove their hypotheses. Therefore, it is likely that all five of the theories mentioned play a part in childrens acquisition of language: while language may be innate, it develops alongsid e a childs cognitive development and children require input and encouragement from their caregivers in order for their use of language to develop fully. To conclude, no one theory of child language acquisition can be said to be wholly responsible for childrens acquisition of language, it is different aspects of each theory working together which make language learning such an impressive feat; this neither proves nor disproves the existence of Chomskys LAD.

Paradoxical Thinking of Google

Paradoxical Thinking of Google Abstract Paradoxical thinking is looking at a problem from opposite perspectives. We live in a complex world which is full of paradoxes. Paradoxical thinking has contributed to many companies success. It is important for us to know about paradoxical thinking. This article analyzed that how Google applies paradoxical thinking in their interface, products and '20 percent program'. Then the article indicated that the key to learn paradoxical thinking is open in mind. Paradoxical Thinking Introduction Before we get started, we need to know what is paradoxical thinking.A paradox is a group of statements that are contradictory. And paradoxical thinking is looking at a problem or a situation from different or even opposite perspectives, and finding the same thing which is deep down in two opposite perspectives. (Westenholz, 1993) For example, in the 1830's, Faraday had observed that a current of electricity passing through a wire could cause the magnetized nee dle, which was located close to the wire, to move in a rotational direction. This was the basis of his electric motor. But he didn't stop with this.He twist his mind and found that moving magnets can cause electricity to flow. This is one of the most brilliant application of paradoxical thinking. Paradoxical thinking has helped plenty of companies to be successful. The following research on Google is trying to find out how they practice paradoxical thinking. Research on Google Company History Google Inc. is an American corporation which provides internet-related products and services. It has the dominant position in this field. Google Inc. was founded in 1998 and set up the workspace in a garage.At the end of 1998, Google was recognized as the search engine of choice by â€Å"PC Magazine†. In 1999, Google received 25 million dollars investment and started its rapid growth. In 2000, Google started to release multiple language versions of Google. com and became the world's larg est search engine by acquiring the first billion-URL index. (Schonfeld, 2008)Google's initial public offering of 19,605,052 shares stock took place on Wall Street on August 18, 2004. Opening price: $ 85 per share. And the price is around $700 per share. Recently, Google. om is listed as the internet's first most visited website, and numerous international Google sites are in the top hundred, as well as several other Google-owned sites such as YouTube and Blogger. (â€Å"Our History in Depth† . Google Inc, 2012) Interface At the end of 20th century, countless search engines were published. What makes Google. com outstanding? I think the interface is a very important factor. As we can see in the pictures, many search engines, such as HotBot, Excite, DogPile, used very complex and colorful homepage in order to attract visitors and indicate their websites' powerful functions.While Google. com used a very simple homepage. It only got a logo, a textbox and two buttons on the websit e. At first, the complex homepages maybe more attractive because of their colors and structures. But visitors more concern about the result pages than the search engine page. Then the convenient Google. com became popular. This is a good example of paradoxical thinking. Complexity cannot always be good. Simplicity can be a better choice. Besides the simple homepage, the â€Å"Google doodles† is also a determine difference. The doodles are not just comics, they also include mini games and short animations.Visitors will have fun and learn some knowledge through these doodles. The doodles are great mixed with Google's logo. It will connect visitors good feelings with Google. com and make them more willing to re-visit it again. Sometimes people come back not because the functions, but for the little funny tricks. (Gube, 2009) Products and Services Google provide a variety of services for people and businesses, not just search for the word you typed. The CEO, Larry Page, described the â€Å"perfect search engine† is something that â€Å"understands exactly what you mean and gives you back exactly what you want. This means making search smarter and faster. You can save time when searching information and have more time on the stuff you are good at. Advertising covers more than 90% of Google's revenue. Google has implemented various innovations in this market. Traditional way of advertising is that showing a product or a service and then trying to raise your interests about it or persuading you to pay it. While Google uses a different way. It takes full advantage of its search engine. The ads show up in the result you found and are related to what you are looking at. Helft, 2009) Ads are presented to you, according your interests. Only a few sentences can be more effectively than traditional ads. And people are more willing to see the ads that are related to what they are looking at. Google search is Google's core product. Now it is far more than a web search engine. You can get access to all the Google's products and services through it. Google's mission is to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful. They want to build a worldwide information centre. For example, the Google map.You can see almost everywhere all over the world. And you can get various information, such as traffic information, geography information, even the street view. Google also developed Chrome and Android to make it simpler and faster for people to do what they want to online. All the Google products and services are trying to make the complex web and information simpler and easier to access or use. 20 percent time Theories of workplace control don't talk much about freedom. The workplace is often understood as a totalizing environment, saturated with obvious and subtle forms of coercion.It is kind of like a prison camp. While, companies like Google have created environment that resembles a playground more than a prison camp. They use a innovative time off program called â€Å"20 percent time†. This program allows the staff devote 20% of the working time to independent projects of their own choosing. (Walker, 2011) Although, not all the independent projects can be applied, Google have got many innovative products, such as Gmail, Chrome, Google Earth and so on. This program is contra to the theories of workplace control, but it keeps Google's creativity.Culture Google is known for having an informal corporate culture. Unlike other big company, Google has a casual culture. Google has some philosophy like â€Å"you can be serious without a suit†, â€Å"work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun. † (Stross, 2008)They believe that great, creative thing are more likely to happen with the right company culture. It does not just mean lava lamps and rubber balls. The culture put an emphasis on team achievements and pride in individual accomplishments has contribute to t heir success.They have built wonderful offices to make employees feel comfortable and fun, and made the company attractive and creative. Learn Paradoxical Thinking Paradoxical thinking is not a talent. It is a skill that you can learn and practice. Paradoxical thinking is looking at a problem or a situation from different or even opposite perspectives. The core is â€Å"outside the box†, which means be open in the mind. We need openness, courage and curiosity to think paradoxically. Openness means that we need to pay attention on our ideas that seem to be ridiculous and be open to learning new subjects.Be brave to try a totally different approach to what you are doing. Be curious about everything, especially that you have been ignoring for granted. Always ask yourself â€Å"Can I change this into the exact opposite? † Being a paradox thinker need to be skeptical. The more skeptical you are the better a paradox thinker you will be. Do not take for granted what others ac cept as a routine (K. R. Ravi). The eight skills related to intelligence are memory, logic, judgment, perception, intuition, reason, imagination and paradoxical thinking.Paradoxical thinking is often regarded as the least used of these skills. This is because that companies that survive hold rational views. While paradoxical thinking involves the ability to reverse, manipulate, combine, synthesize opposites (K. R. Ravi). It is hard to accept paradox for people that cannot live with two seemingly contradictory forces at the same time. Summary We live in a complex world which is full of paradox. It is very important for us to learn paradoxical thinking. (T. Belasen) By thinking paradoxically, we can find new opportunities, improve our performance.For management and leadership, paradoxical thinking means try opposite ways, and find the expectation in these ways. For example, the Greyhound bus line have gone through a very tough time because of the Green Tortoise. The Green Tortoise lin e's price is half of that of Greyhound. It is hard for Greyhound to compete with Green Tortoise on price. Instead of reducing the journey time and cost, the owner of Greyhound increased the journey time from four days to six days. This is trying a opposite way. Since he is more familiar about this place than the Green Tortoise does, he added more ‘fun' into the six days trip.His fun trip strategy gave him a new opportunity and changed travel into a pleasure industry. References â€Å"Our History in Depth† . Google Inc. (2012, October 21). Retrieved from http://www. google. com/about/company/history Gube, J. (2009, September 12). Popular Search Engines in the 90's:Then and Now. Retrieved from http://sixrevisions. com/web_design/popular-search-engines-in-the-90s-then-and-now/ Helft, M. (2009, March 11). Google to Offer Ads Based on Interests. The New York Times. K. R. Ravi. (n. d. ). Paradoxical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www. krravi. com/PARADOXICALTHINKING. df Scho nfeld, E. (2008, January 9). â€Å"Google Processing 20,000 Terabytes a day, and Growing†. Retrieved from TechCrunch. Stross, R. (2008). Planet Google: One Company's Audacious Plan to Organize Everything We Know. New York: Free Press. T. Belasen, A. (n. d. ). Paradoxes and Leadership Roles. Walker, A. (2011, November). ‘Creativity loves constraints': The paradox of Googles twenty percent time. Ephemera: Theory & Politics in Organization, pp. 369-386. Westenholz, A. (1993). Paradoxical Thinking and Change in the Frames of Reference. Organization Studies, pp. 37-58.

Getting the Best Medical School Personal Essay Samples

Getting the Best Medical School Personal Essay Samples Actually, professional writers will generate a personal statement medical school sample that may be considered usable. A frequent mistake is to earn a statement and assume that the reader will be in a position to place it as relevant. The great majority of personal statements don't have themes. Before starting to compose your own personal statement, you ought to think of the approach that you want to take. My private statement has to have a theme. If your own personal statement is intriguing and compelling, it's fine to use the whole allotted space. Good personal statements frequently have a strong awareness of narrative. Writing the ideal essay won't matter much if it's the case that you don't select a school that satisfies your requirements. The essay has become the most important portion of a university appllication see sample essays ideal for applying to schools in the us. Nowadays it's very difficult to locate a trustworthy essay writing service. In spite of exceptional grades a poorly written essay will offer you a lousy name. Stand-out essays highlight your private selling points. When searching for help writing an essay it's important to remain honest and prevent plagiarism. You don't need to know the ideal topic immediately. Help writing an essay for college matter what's the subject of your essay of how hard it is. Such essays are occasionally written in a series so they cover the full scope of the theme. Your essays shouldn't be a struggle to comprehend. You've got to avoid being immodest in the completely free medical essays for it's only going to destroy your impression. You're going to write one of the most significant essays of your life. Yourmedical school personal statementis your opportunity to tell your special story to the admissions committee and supply them with context on why you wish to pursue medicine. Your healthcare school personal statement isn't a place to just rehash your transcripts or qualifications. The admissions board would like to understand about you, and your own personal statement tells them what they will need to know it tells them why your should be permitted to make your fantasy of being a doctor a reality at their school. To find out more about what things to anticipate from the study of medicine, have a look at our Study Medicine in the usa section. You have just one chance to ruin a very first impression. So, you are in need of a personal spin on it. A health school would like to know your finest qualities, and that is that which we show you in our private statement medical school examples. It's possible to come across online writing workshops that cover every element of writing, for each skill level. Getting honest about your own reasons and individual motivations is crucial! If you're a global student worrying about your writing skills, there are lots of helpful resources which are available to you. The Medical School Personal Essay Samples Game Writing quality essays is the principal use of our services. Professional edi tors are responsible for our editing services. Academic papers can't contain any signals of plagiarism. The Fundamentals of Medical School Personal Essay Samples Revealed Do not neglect to mention the reason you're applying to med school. A professional write up is always likely to be better than yours and if you don't wish to lose your grade hiring their professional help is thought to be the very best. Because getting into med school is an arduous period. If your school doesn't offer a writing class, you can discover a workshop offered on campus or maybe a class you'll be able to take online, if you're keen to pay.

Discourse Community Research And Analysis - 1084 Words

Sara Mian Paper 1 Discourse community research and analysis purseblog.com I have changed my discourse community to http://www.purseblog.com/ . I am fond of this discourse community more than http://www.makeupandbeautyblog.com/. Purseblog.com has made a great influence on me and it interests me very much. This website gives me everything! It has great information about the hottest purses, style, fashion, and celebrity news. They have so much knowledge about my favorite designers such as Hermes and Chanel. Oh my-gosh, I’m so obsessed and I have fallen head over heels in love with this blog. I believe members of this community what they are doing is keeping up with the latest fashion trends in Paris and all over the world. The blog does†¦show more content†¦Also, I believe it guides the members on how much to spend and knowledge on costs. A specialized language which is used on the blog are French terms. Designer names are used and fashion related terms are used. Here is a little example: trendy, spring collection, winter collection, rouge, tote, Alexander McQueen, Fendi , etc. The communication function specialized language serves as a proper way to write and pronounce a sophisticated palette of words in a high society in addressing high end fashion and their designers. The authority is a number of people who organize and run this website. Regarding some stuff I have seen posted, was done by Amanda Mull. I feel this website is controlled or highly influenced by private companies who have numerous workers who s opinion is taken in consideration when purchasing, selling, and discussing what fashion is in. The old comers are the people who initially started the website. The new comers are employees that are hired to express and sell fashion. Any new members that subscribe are new comers. I have a feeling high end boutiques are getting customers that are members of this website. 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