Language Acquisition Device

Language Acquisition Device In 1965 the linguist Noam Chomsky put forward the idea that language was innate, and suggested that childrens language acquisition was supported by a Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Other linguists and psychologists, however, have their own theories of child language acquisition, three of which base the development of language on interaction with caregivers, on cognitive development, and on imitation and reinforcement respectively. At first glance, it seems that the different theories of child language acquisition contradict each other, that it would be impossible for all five theories to have an element of truth in them. When, however, you look at the theories in more detail, you realise that the way in which children acquire language is likely to be a result of the five different theories working together. By describing language as innate, Chomsky was suggesting that children are born with an internal knowledge of language, that the rules of language are inside their brains from birth, so that when they begin to speak, they will have a pre-existing knowledge of grammatical rules. This essay will demonstrate that while Chomskys LAD is undoubtedly present in children, the other theories of child language acquisition also play a role in the development of childrens language; none can be disregarded as being untrue. In 1986, Chomsky added to his theory of language innateness by putting forward the idea that the Language Acquisition Device contained a Universal Grammar, a set of basic rules of grammar that characterise all languages. This explains the fact that children from all over the world pass through similar stages, at similar ages, in the acquisition of language, despite vast cultural differences. By 5 years of age, most children have a good grasp of the basic rules of their own language. This provides strong evidence for the existence of a LAD, as if language were not innate, children from different countries and backgrounds would surely pick up different aspects of language in different orders, and all children, even those from the same backgrounds, would acquire language at different rates. Further evidence for the existence of a Language Acquisition Device comes from what was termed s-structures (surface structures) and d-structures (deep structures) (Chomsky, 1957, 1982). Different languages have different surface structures (the actual phrases used in a sentence), but they all share the same deep structures, reflecting the sentences meaning. The fact that children understand deep structures without having to be actively taught about them suggests that language is innate: children have an inborn understanding of grammatical concepts, understanding that the order of words within a sentence is important. The grammatical errors that children make during the process of acquiring language, known as overgeneralisation, also suggest that language is an innate module, thereby providing evidence for the existence of a Language Acquisition Device. Overgeneralisation occurs, for example, when children apply the past tense -ed inflection to irregular verbs such as go. Children obviously wouldnt hear an adult saying goed, which suggests that children have an inbuilt knowledge of grammatical rules: they know that to form the past tense they have to use the -ed suffix, but they arent yet aware of irregular verbs. Evidence for grammatical overgeneralisation by children comes from an experiment carried out by Brown and Bellugi in 1964, in which the early speech of two children was analysed. The -ed past tense inflection was used for irregular verbs such as come (comed) and grow (growed). Further overgeneralisation occurred when forming plurals: nouns such as sheep and tooth were made plural by addi ng the -s inflection (sheeps and tooths). Again, the two children had learnt that to make a noun plural you used the -s inflection, but they were not yet aware of nouns which didnt follow the normal grammatical rule. The fact that not all children are exposed to Child Directed Speech provides further evidence for the innate nature of language. The cultures of the islands which lie in the South Pacific Ocean, for example, believe that such ways of speaking actually interfere with a childs language development. Infants in countries such as Samoa and Papua New Guinea, therefore, do not hear modified forms of language: all they hear is their native language in all its complexity. Despite the fact that the only language they are exposed to is the standard, unaltered form of their native language, infants in such countries pick up language at much the same rate and just as quickly as infants who are exposed to simplified forms of language, who are exposed to Child Directed Speech. This points clearly to the fact that language is innate, as if it wasnt, children in such countries would arguably acquire language at a later age, as a result of them not being exposed to simplified forms of language. A final piece of evidence for the existence of a Language Acquisition Device is the fact that language is specific only to humans. No other species spontaneously develops language in the way that humans do. This fact, coupled with the relative speed and ease with which children acquire their first language, provides substantial evidence for the existence of a LAD, especially as language is far too complex to be taught completely from scratch. Despite all of this evidence supporting the existence of a Language Acquisition Device, there are some factors which would throw the existence of the LAD into doubt. One such factor is the fact that feral children, along with children who have suffered extreme cases of abuse and neglect fail to master language, beyond the basics, even when taught by specialists. One such case is that of Genie (Curtiss, 1977). Up to the age of 13, from the age of approximately 20 months, Genie was kept in an isolated room with practically no human contact. Upon being rescued, Genie successfully learnt vocabulary, although she failed to understand the rules behind grammar, and as a result was only able to master three-word utterances as a result of the lack of attention and interaction she received throughout her infancy and childhood. This situation has been found to be the case with feral children, and with other victims of extreme child abuse. The inability to master grammatical rules, and therefore to speak in grammatically correct and complete sentences, can be explained by the Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967), which theorises that language learning is easiest before a certain age. Combining the fact that feral children and abused children fail to master anything but the basics of language with the Critical Period Hypothesis provides evidence against the existence of a LAD. If language were innate, as Chomsky suggested, such children would be able to acquire language, however old they were when rescued, as it would simply be a matter of learning the vocabulary; they would have the grammatical rules already in place. The fact that they are unable to suggests that something else is required: this is where the other theorists of child language acquisition come in. One such alternative theory of childrens acquisition of language is the Behaviourist Account, associated with the psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner, 1957, suggested that children acquire language through a process known as operant conditioning. In a linguistic sense, this means that when a child uses language correctly, in terms of both the lexis and the grammar, they are rewarded in various ways. Due to these rewards, children are motivated to repeat the behaviour, thereby shaping their language and ensuring that it develops successfully. Another theory which goes against that set out by Chomsky is the Cognition Theory. Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist, believed that cognitive development (the development of mental abilities and skills) was the overriding influence on the development of language, with language being neither innate nor learned passively. Piagets theory focuses on the precursors of early language, such as gestures and facial expressions, as Piaget claimed that in the first two years of life, the childs intellectual skills rely on sensori-motor experiences such as seeing, hearing and touching, as opposed to on words and images. While Piaget agreed with Chomsky in the sense that children develop a set of rules, he believed that rather than being innate, they came instead from a wider cognitive system, whereby children form schemas to help explain events in their lives, and then they are able to talk about them. Piagets concept of Object Permanence helps to support his cognition theory, in turn pr oviding evidence against the existence of a Language Acquisition Device. Before 18 months of age, infants are egocentric, as they cant mentally process the concept that something can exist outside of their immediate surroundings. By the time they are 18 months old, however, they have developed a sense of object permanence, realising that objects exist all of the time, even when the infant cant see them. The development of object permanence coincides with a substantial increase in vocabulary: if, as Chomsky suggested, language was innate and children possessed a LAD, object permanence wouldnt take such a long time to develop, as they would have a sufficient level of development to understand that an object couldnt and wouldnt just disappear. A further theory which helps to question the existence of Chomskys Language Acquisition Device is that of the psychologist Jerome Bruner. Bruners interactionist theory stresses the role of linguistic interaction from caregivers in a childs language development. This theory doesnt completely disprove the existence of the LAD; rather it suggests that something else is needed. Bruner suggested that children have a Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), whereby caregivers support their childs acquisition of language in social situations. A final theory which provides evidence against the existence of the Language Acquisition Device is that put forward by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky: the Socio-Cultural theory. The main tenet of this theory is that both social interaction and experiencing different social and cultural contexts are important for the development of language. Two significant factors which contribute to language development were identified: Private Speech (when a child talks aloud to itself, providing evidence that they are thinking for themselves) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which occurs when a child needs the help of a caregiver in order to interact. The caregiver will either respond for the child, or will try to encourage a response from the child, both of which provide the child with a model to apply to similar situations in the future. This essay has discussed both evidence for and against the existence of Language Acquisition Device as proposed by Chomsky. The existence of the LAD has been challenged not only by other theories of child language acquisition but also by individual cases of feral and abused children. As the evidence set out in the essay suggests, the existence of Chomskys LAD cannot be disproved completely, as arguing that it didnt exist would put too many things down to coincidence, examples being that children the world over pass through similar stages of language development, and that children instinctively apply grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns, leading to overgeneralisation. You cant, however, simply disregard the work of other psychologist and linguists, as they all carried out their research to prove their hypotheses. Therefore, it is likely that all five of the theories mentioned play a part in childrens acquisition of language: while language may be innate, it develops alongsid e a childs cognitive development and children require input and encouragement from their caregivers in order for their use of language to develop fully. To conclude, no one theory of child language acquisition can be said to be wholly responsible for childrens acquisition of language, it is different aspects of each theory working together which make language learning such an impressive feat; this neither proves nor disproves the existence of Chomskys LAD.

Paradoxical Thinking of Google

Paradoxical Thinking of Google Abstract Paradoxical thinking is looking at a problem from opposite perspectives. We live in a complex world which is full of paradoxes. Paradoxical thinking has contributed to many companies success. It is important for us to know about paradoxical thinking. This article analyzed that how Google applies paradoxical thinking in their interface, products and '20 percent program'. Then the article indicated that the key to learn paradoxical thinking is open in mind. Paradoxical Thinking Introduction Before we get started, we need to know what is paradoxical thinking.A paradox is a group of statements that are contradictory. And paradoxical thinking is looking at a problem or a situation from different or even opposite perspectives, and finding the same thing which is deep down in two opposite perspectives. (Westenholz, 1993) For example, in the 1830's, Faraday had observed that a current of electricity passing through a wire could cause the magnetized nee dle, which was located close to the wire, to move in a rotational direction. This was the basis of his electric motor. But he didn't stop with this.He twist his mind and found that moving magnets can cause electricity to flow. This is one of the most brilliant application of paradoxical thinking. Paradoxical thinking has helped plenty of companies to be successful. The following research on Google is trying to find out how they practice paradoxical thinking. Research on Google Company History Google Inc. is an American corporation which provides internet-related products and services. It has the dominant position in this field. Google Inc. was founded in 1998 and set up the workspace in a garage.At the end of 1998, Google was recognized as the search engine of choice by â€Å"PC Magazine†. In 1999, Google received 25 million dollars investment and started its rapid growth. In 2000, Google started to release multiple language versions of Google. com and became the world's larg est search engine by acquiring the first billion-URL index. (Schonfeld, 2008)Google's initial public offering of 19,605,052 shares stock took place on Wall Street on August 18, 2004. Opening price: $ 85 per share. And the price is around $700 per share. Recently, Google. om is listed as the internet's first most visited website, and numerous international Google sites are in the top hundred, as well as several other Google-owned sites such as YouTube and Blogger. (â€Å"Our History in Depth† . Google Inc, 2012) Interface At the end of 20th century, countless search engines were published. What makes Google. com outstanding? I think the interface is a very important factor. As we can see in the pictures, many search engines, such as HotBot, Excite, DogPile, used very complex and colorful homepage in order to attract visitors and indicate their websites' powerful functions.While Google. com used a very simple homepage. It only got a logo, a textbox and two buttons on the websit e. At first, the complex homepages maybe more attractive because of their colors and structures. But visitors more concern about the result pages than the search engine page. Then the convenient Google. com became popular. This is a good example of paradoxical thinking. Complexity cannot always be good. Simplicity can be a better choice. Besides the simple homepage, the â€Å"Google doodles† is also a determine difference. The doodles are not just comics, they also include mini games and short animations.Visitors will have fun and learn some knowledge through these doodles. The doodles are great mixed with Google's logo. It will connect visitors good feelings with Google. com and make them more willing to re-visit it again. Sometimes people come back not because the functions, but for the little funny tricks. (Gube, 2009) Products and Services Google provide a variety of services for people and businesses, not just search for the word you typed. The CEO, Larry Page, described the â€Å"perfect search engine† is something that â€Å"understands exactly what you mean and gives you back exactly what you want. This means making search smarter and faster. You can save time when searching information and have more time on the stuff you are good at. Advertising covers more than 90% of Google's revenue. Google has implemented various innovations in this market. Traditional way of advertising is that showing a product or a service and then trying to raise your interests about it or persuading you to pay it. While Google uses a different way. It takes full advantage of its search engine. The ads show up in the result you found and are related to what you are looking at. Helft, 2009) Ads are presented to you, according your interests. Only a few sentences can be more effectively than traditional ads. And people are more willing to see the ads that are related to what they are looking at. Google search is Google's core product. Now it is far more than a web search engine. You can get access to all the Google's products and services through it. Google's mission is to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful. They want to build a worldwide information centre. For example, the Google map.You can see almost everywhere all over the world. And you can get various information, such as traffic information, geography information, even the street view. Google also developed Chrome and Android to make it simpler and faster for people to do what they want to online. All the Google products and services are trying to make the complex web and information simpler and easier to access or use. 20 percent time Theories of workplace control don't talk much about freedom. The workplace is often understood as a totalizing environment, saturated with obvious and subtle forms of coercion.It is kind of like a prison camp. While, companies like Google have created environment that resembles a playground more than a prison camp. They use a innovative time off program called â€Å"20 percent time†. This program allows the staff devote 20% of the working time to independent projects of their own choosing. (Walker, 2011) Although, not all the independent projects can be applied, Google have got many innovative products, such as Gmail, Chrome, Google Earth and so on. This program is contra to the theories of workplace control, but it keeps Google's creativity.Culture Google is known for having an informal corporate culture. Unlike other big company, Google has a casual culture. Google has some philosophy like â€Å"you can be serious without a suit†, â€Å"work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun. † (Stross, 2008)They believe that great, creative thing are more likely to happen with the right company culture. It does not just mean lava lamps and rubber balls. The culture put an emphasis on team achievements and pride in individual accomplishments has contribute to t heir success.They have built wonderful offices to make employees feel comfortable and fun, and made the company attractive and creative. Learn Paradoxical Thinking Paradoxical thinking is not a talent. It is a skill that you can learn and practice. Paradoxical thinking is looking at a problem or a situation from different or even opposite perspectives. The core is â€Å"outside the box†, which means be open in the mind. We need openness, courage and curiosity to think paradoxically. Openness means that we need to pay attention on our ideas that seem to be ridiculous and be open to learning new subjects.Be brave to try a totally different approach to what you are doing. Be curious about everything, especially that you have been ignoring for granted. Always ask yourself â€Å"Can I change this into the exact opposite? † Being a paradox thinker need to be skeptical. The more skeptical you are the better a paradox thinker you will be. Do not take for granted what others ac cept as a routine (K. R. Ravi). The eight skills related to intelligence are memory, logic, judgment, perception, intuition, reason, imagination and paradoxical thinking.Paradoxical thinking is often regarded as the least used of these skills. This is because that companies that survive hold rational views. While paradoxical thinking involves the ability to reverse, manipulate, combine, synthesize opposites (K. R. Ravi). It is hard to accept paradox for people that cannot live with two seemingly contradictory forces at the same time. Summary We live in a complex world which is full of paradox. It is very important for us to learn paradoxical thinking. (T. Belasen) By thinking paradoxically, we can find new opportunities, improve our performance.For management and leadership, paradoxical thinking means try opposite ways, and find the expectation in these ways. For example, the Greyhound bus line have gone through a very tough time because of the Green Tortoise. The Green Tortoise lin e's price is half of that of Greyhound. It is hard for Greyhound to compete with Green Tortoise on price. Instead of reducing the journey time and cost, the owner of Greyhound increased the journey time from four days to six days. This is trying a opposite way. Since he is more familiar about this place than the Green Tortoise does, he added more ‘fun' into the six days trip.His fun trip strategy gave him a new opportunity and changed travel into a pleasure industry. References â€Å"Our History in Depth† . Google Inc. (2012, October 21). Retrieved from http://www. google. com/about/company/history Gube, J. (2009, September 12). Popular Search Engines in the 90's:Then and Now. Retrieved from http://sixrevisions. com/web_design/popular-search-engines-in-the-90s-then-and-now/ Helft, M. (2009, March 11). Google to Offer Ads Based on Interests. The New York Times. K. R. Ravi. (n. d. ). Paradoxical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www. krravi. com/PARADOXICALTHINKING. df Scho nfeld, E. (2008, January 9). â€Å"Google Processing 20,000 Terabytes a day, and Growing†. Retrieved from TechCrunch. Stross, R. (2008). Planet Google: One Company's Audacious Plan to Organize Everything We Know. New York: Free Press. T. Belasen, A. (n. d. ). Paradoxes and Leadership Roles. Walker, A. (2011, November). ‘Creativity loves constraints': The paradox of Googles twenty percent time. Ephemera: Theory & Politics in Organization, pp. 369-386. Westenholz, A. (1993). Paradoxical Thinking and Change in the Frames of Reference. Organization Studies, pp. 37-58.

Getting the Best Medical School Personal Essay Samples

Getting the Best Medical School Personal Essay Samples Actually, professional writers will generate a personal statement medical school sample that may be considered usable. A frequent mistake is to earn a statement and assume that the reader will be in a position to place it as relevant. The great majority of personal statements don't have themes. Before starting to compose your own personal statement, you ought to think of the approach that you want to take. My private statement has to have a theme. If your own personal statement is intriguing and compelling, it's fine to use the whole allotted space. Good personal statements frequently have a strong awareness of narrative. Writing the ideal essay won't matter much if it's the case that you don't select a school that satisfies your requirements. The essay has become the most important portion of a university appllication see sample essays ideal for applying to schools in the us. Nowadays it's very difficult to locate a trustworthy essay writing service. In spite of exceptional grades a poorly written essay will offer you a lousy name. Stand-out essays highlight your private selling points. When searching for help writing an essay it's important to remain honest and prevent plagiarism. You don't need to know the ideal topic immediately. Help writing an essay for college matter what's the subject of your essay of how hard it is. Such essays are occasionally written in a series so they cover the full scope of the theme. Your essays shouldn't be a struggle to comprehend. You've got to avoid being immodest in the completely free medical essays for it's only going to destroy your impression. You're going to write one of the most significant essays of your life. Yourmedical school personal statementis your opportunity to tell your special story to the admissions committee and supply them with context on why you wish to pursue medicine. Your healthcare school personal statement isn't a place to just rehash your transcripts or qualifications. The admissions board would like to understand about you, and your own personal statement tells them what they will need to know it tells them why your should be permitted to make your fantasy of being a doctor a reality at their school. To find out more about what things to anticipate from the study of medicine, have a look at our Study Medicine in the usa section. You have just one chance to ruin a very first impression. So, you are in need of a personal spin on it. A health school would like to know your finest qualities, and that is that which we show you in our private statement medical school examples. It's possible to come across online writing workshops that cover every element of writing, for each skill level. Getting honest about your own reasons and individual motivations is crucial! If you're a global student worrying about your writing skills, there are lots of helpful resources which are available to you. The Medical School Personal Essay Samples Game Writing quality essays is the principal use of our services. Professional edi tors are responsible for our editing services. Academic papers can't contain any signals of plagiarism. The Fundamentals of Medical School Personal Essay Samples Revealed Do not neglect to mention the reason you're applying to med school. A professional write up is always likely to be better than yours and if you don't wish to lose your grade hiring their professional help is thought to be the very best. Because getting into med school is an arduous period. If your school doesn't offer a writing class, you can discover a workshop offered on campus or maybe a class you'll be able to take online, if you're keen to pay.

Discourse Community Research And Analysis - 1084 Words

Sara Mian Paper 1 Discourse community research and analysis purseblog.com I have changed my discourse community to http://www.purseblog.com/ . I am fond of this discourse community more than http://www.makeupandbeautyblog.com/. Purseblog.com has made a great influence on me and it interests me very much. This website gives me everything! It has great information about the hottest purses, style, fashion, and celebrity news. They have so much knowledge about my favorite designers such as Hermes and Chanel. Oh my-gosh, I’m so obsessed and I have fallen head over heels in love with this blog. I believe members of this community what they are doing is keeping up with the latest fashion trends in Paris and all over the world. The blog does†¦show more content†¦Also, I believe it guides the members on how much to spend and knowledge on costs. A specialized language which is used on the blog are French terms. Designer names are used and fashion related terms are used. Here is a little example: trendy, spring collection, winter collection, rouge, tote, Alexander McQueen, Fendi , etc. The communication function specialized language serves as a proper way to write and pronounce a sophisticated palette of words in a high society in addressing high end fashion and their designers. The authority is a number of people who organize and run this website. Regarding some stuff I have seen posted, was done by Amanda Mull. I feel this website is controlled or highly influenced by private companies who have numerous workers who s opinion is taken in consideration when purchasing, selling, and discussing what fashion is in. The old comers are the people who initially started the website. The new comers are employees that are hired to express and sell fashion. Any new members that subscribe are new comers. I have a feeling high end boutiques are getting customers that are members of this website. 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Vision Statement Ford Motor Companys Mission Statement

Corporation Vision, Mission, and Primary Stakeholder A mission statement addresses the actions that are needed to meet the organizational objectives of a business goal (Thompson, 2015). Ford Motor Company’s current mission statement is about the response to current challenges that company has experienced in dealing with new market risks, such as the American recession and the global financial crisis that started in the late 2000’s (Thompson, 2015a). Ford’s mission statement is â€Å"One Team, One Plan, One Goal (Thompson, 2015a). The company’s mission statement emphasizes teamwork to achieve synergy at Ford (Thompson, 2015a). It is important for Ford to unify all of their organizational stakeholders into one cohesive unit. Ford’s vision statement is â€Å"people working together as a lean, global enterprise for automotive leadership† (Thompson, 2015a). The vision statement emphasizes the company’s global leadership, which is how the firm wants to be recognized as one of the top contenders in the international automotive market (Thompson, 2015a). A company’s mission statement specifies how the firm intends to compete and serve their customers (Hitt, Ireland, Hoskisson, 2013, p.18). The vision and mission provide the foundation for an organization’s strategies (Hitt et al., 2013, p. 18). The company’s objectives should be inspiring and relevant to all their stakeholders (p.18). Ford’s vision statement addresses the concerns of their stakeholders and their ability to enhance the firm’sShow MoreRelatedFord Motor Company The Song Comes1637 Words   |  7 PagesWhen I think of Ford Motor Company the song comes in my mind, Mustang Sally, think you better slow your mustang down, you been running all over the town now, I guess I have to put your flat feet on the ground, all you want to do is ride around Sally, ride, Sally, ride. 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Fashion -a Person Free Essays

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Professional Skills for System Analysis International Business Machin

Question: Discuss about theProfessional Skills for System Analysis for International Business Machines Corporation. Answer: Introduction Willowbrook School is a small and private school in the Midwest United States. The IT Consultant of the school recommends implementing a new computer information system to handle both financial as well as administration works. It increases the enrollment applications of the programs. Due to increase in students application, coupling with increasing demand for the after school care leads to increase in high workload over the staffs as well as administrative staffs. For this reason, the Director, Victoria Owens discusses with the IT consultant about the possibility to set up a computer system to reduce the workload. The report is based on eight parts. It gives the justification of the system design architecture for Willowbrook School. The report reflects on physical as well as logical network topology. A list of hardware for the designed network topologies is given to become familiar with the used hardware for the new information system. A system design specification document is analyzed to identify the goal and purpose of the system design report. An application development methodology is discussed for the Willowbrook School. Testing plan is given to test the systems requirements for the school. The training plan is given to training the staffs, teachers as well as volunteers based on the needs of the users groups. Data conversion as well as system changeover method is developed for successfully implement the system for the school. Architecture for Willowbrook School Proposed System Architecture Figure 1: System Architecture for Willowbrook School (Source: Chernyi 2015, pp-62) Justification on the System Architecture The architecture of the Willowbrook School information system is proposed as client based server architecture. The client server architecture of the school consists of a network architecture in which each of the computers on the network is either client or server. Using this server, the client computer can send resources request to the server over the network connection, when the resources are delivered to the client (Chernyi 2015). The client sets up a connection to the server over the local area network such as an internet. A three-tier architecture is suggested as the best option for the school. It has three tiers such as presentation, application, and data tier. Firstly, the presentation tier engages the top level as well as shows the information related to the service (Power, Sharda and Burstein 2015). It converses with the other layers by sending results to the browser. Secondly, the application tier controls the application functionality by performing a processing (Venkatesh, Thong and Xu 2012). Thirdly, the data tier houses the database servers where the information is stored. Data are kept independent of the application servers. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Proposed System Architecture Advantages Disadvantages Using the client server architecture, Willowbrook School will increase their productivity throughout the use of cost-effective user interfaces, enhancing the data storage as well as consistent application services (Devine, Shifrin and Shoulberg 2015). Due to a huge number of client's request, the servers are getting overloaded, and it forms traffic congestion. Use of SQL supports open access from the client, as well as gives transparency within the network services, represent that comparable data are shared among the users. As the client based server is centralized, therefore if the server fails then the client requests are not proficient (Dennis, Wixom and Tegarden 2015). Client server has better control access to make certain that only authorized person can access the data, as well as server updates, are to be controlled professionally (Chang et al. 2015). The server is quite expensive to purchase. The software, as well as hardware used for the server, is very critical. Specific hardware, as well as software, is used, and it results in increasing the cost. Cost Benefits Issues The issues regarding the cost benefit are to reduce the load on the network as well as make changes in the response time from the service provider side (Mithas et al. 2012). Willowbrook School needs an expansion in their information system network. Physical and logical topology Physical Topology Figure 2: Physical Bus Topology (Source: Oluwatosin 2014, pp-67) The physical bus topology consists of computers as well as servers that are associated to a single cable with the assist of interface connectors. The central cable is the backbone of the network (Oluwatosin 2014). Each of the workstations is communicated with other device by means of a bus. A signal from the source is broadcasted, and it travels to the workstations associated with the bus cable. A terminator is connected to prevent the bouncing of signals. Logical Topology Figure 3: Logical Bus Topology (Source: Oluwatosin 2014, pp-67) The LAN that eliminates a logical bus topology delivers the signal generated by the transmitter towards the attached devices (Oluwatosin 2014). Within this network topology, none of the end devices is required in order to regenerate signal for other attached devices in order to receive it. It is the method that the data are passed throughout the network from one of the devices to the other based on the physical interconnection of the devices. Ethernet is reflected as the logical bus topology for the particular proposed system. List of Hardware for Designing the Topologies Web Server Database Server CPU and RAM Router Access point to connect with the internet Application Server Network Hardware System Design Specification Document Project Scope The scope of the project is that the Willowbrook School includes the ability to increase the enrollment of the student without hiring of any extra staffs. The new information system tracks the enrollments, aftercare billing as well as payments. The proposed system monitors the process of tracking, reviewing the cost as well as reporting (Schwalbe 2015). The system can individually track the billing details of the individual students. System Design The resources used to implement the new information system are Web Server, Database Server, CPU and RAM, Router, Access point to connect with the internet, Application Server and Network Hardware. The new information system is proposed as client based server architecture (Vaishnavi and Kuechler 2015). A three-tier architecture is suggested as the best option for the school. Component and Process Design At first, the user is identified when they give their ID login details. Only the registered user can login into the system (Reynolds 2015). The user can connect the client server and then the registered user can authenticate throughout the token. After getting proper username and password, the server allows the users to use the system for financial and administration tasks (Haimes 2015). The user should use an internet connection to access the system. As the system stores the data of the students, therefore it is required to use server authentication to prevent the data from any unauthorized use. SQL database is used that supports open access from the client, as well as gives transparency within the network services, represent that comparable data are shared amongst the users (Dingsoyr et al. 2012). Data Design The data are at first use the direct cutover method but due to some problems, it uses the phrased operation method for aftercare billing (Power, Sharda and Burstein 2015). User Displays The users conducted those are involved with the implementation of the system are administrative staffs, principal, vice principal, teachers, students, and parents. Prototype Description Prototype 1 It allows the staffs to log in to the Willowbrook School using a user name, employee number as well as password. An essential employee login will view all the information of the student. Prototype 2 It allows the parents to log in to the Willowbrook School using username, student number as well as the password (Hwang, Kettinger and Mun 2015). An essential employee login will view all the information of the student. After the login, the parent clicks on the information of the student; they can able to view the address as well as a phone number of the student. System Development and Project Management Schedules After the set up of the architectural design phase for the system, some of its system specifications areas are updated such as detailed design, prototype testing phrase (Olsson, Bosch and Alahyari 2013). Therefore, it requires more time to complete the implementation task of the new information system for Willowbrook School. Project Extensions It takes extra four weeks to complete the entire implementation process of the system. Application Development Methodology The application development methodology is used to plan as well as control the process of developing the new information system. For the Willowbrook School, Agile Software Development Methodology is used to minimize the risks within the school by developing new information system (Givoni et al. 2013). This method emphasizes real time communication as well as overwritten documents. Using this methodology, the school can build small client approved as well as deliver large application at the end of the implementation process. Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Application Development Methodologies Structured Approach Object Oriented Approach Agile Methodology Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages It minimizes the complexity of the new proposed system (Valacich, George and Hoffer 2015). It takes a lot of time as well as finance to analyze the new information system. It reduces the maintenance cost. This approach is best suited for the interactive as well as dynamic environment (Park and Sabir 2015). The information system applications such as payroll, accounting are not benefited from this approach. The needs of the resources for this methodology are minimum. There are some issues regarding the maintenance of the system. It gives future direction towards the system. Changes within the system take more time to analyze (Chernyi 2015). It gives a high level of the flexible system as the objects are to be accessed dynamically. The development of the object oriented approach is not done by all the vendors (Nelson 2013). It delivers the development process within the estimated timeline in a proper manner (Dillon 2014). It requires documentation generation as it has a high level of dependency among the individuals. It focuses on the logical system to perform the task. Staffs are required to give training when there are any changes in the system. The objects are provided with a roadmap when the application is scalable. As this approach is using complex data types, therefore it is difficult to implement. It gives teamwork with proper training to the staffs to train about handing the information system. This methodology is not able to handle compound dependencies. Testing Plan for Suitable Data Set Types of testing Description of testing for suitable data set System Testing System Testing is done to verify the login, verify the close registration, and maintain the information of the student as well as a professor. It also verifies the view report, register for the courses and selection of courses to teach (Paroni, Geremia and Valeri 2016). The system error results into logged off the system. Therefore, the fatal system errors result in shutdown of the system. User Interface Testing It verifies the navigation through a sample set of screens that conforms to GUI standards. The system can easy to use as well as accurate for the target market of the students as well as teachers (Devine, Shifrin and Shoulberg 2013). Performance Testing It verifies the response time in order to access the finance system and for submittal of registration for courses. Security and Access Control Testing It verifies the login from the local PC and verifies the username as well as password mechanism. Configuration Testing It checks for the configuration that if the client component of the system is configured properly with the network (Artzi et al. 2013). As the integrated system is functional, therefore the proposed system is to be tested based on its new operating system, network as well as PCs. Training Plan and Procedures Based on users Group Needs After the testing of the new information system, the staffs, teachers as well as other management members required training so that they can handle the system properly. The following are the user groups those are required to train on the new system as follows: Teachers of the Willowbrook School: The teachers are required to train as they teach the students and play a vital role in the school. The training topics those are required to consider are startup and shutdown the information system (Oluwatosin 2014). The teachers are required to use the system, as they require functioning the system. Therefore, they are also trained to fix the issue as well as troubleshooting. Staffs of Administrative Department: The principal of the Willowbrook School, Kathy and the vice principal, Susan requires to train on the entire system. They are the essential administrative staffs for the school (Chang et al. 2015). If they are trained on the system, then they can give best customer support before they call to get the service support. The training topics those are covered include preparation of documents and administrative reports; enter the details of the teachers and staffs, requesting enhancement as well as user training. Volunteers: The school requires volunteers so that they can work on the event of fundraising. Therefore, they are trained to fundraise for the system. The topic includes how to motivate the individuals to give fund for the school, how to convince the individuals, what to say and how to collect the fund (Devine, Shifrin and Shoulberg 2015). Those volunteers are trained by both the essential staffs of the school such as principal as well as vice principal. Data Conversion and System Changeover Method Data Conversion for Willowbrook School System In the existing process of data entry, the Willowbrook School uses a spreadsheet as well as word to enter the data. After the implementation of the proposed system, the data are required to export into the new information system (Sinha and Isaac 2015). At first, the data of the students such as the name of the student, their contact details, etc., and then the monthly billing of the student is done. After entering the billing, data for the parents, block as well as total attendance of the student is done. The following is the data conversion table to store the data of the students: Data Entry Order 1 2 3 4 5 Information of the Student Name of the Student Student ID Address of the house Contact Details of the student Total course fee of the student Billing System Name of the Student Student ID Number of days late Date of paying the fee Bill dates Information of the parent and address Information of the student Name of the parents Address of the house Contact Number Block Information of the student Year Student Number Total attendance of the particular student Name of the Student Student ID Block ID Total number of days present Total number of days absent System Changeover Method According to the billing process of Willowbrook School, their fixed fee billing process should complete within the month of April, and a new session will begin in the month of July. However, their aftercare billing process does not end up in the second week of the month of June. Within this period, the systems are required to install such as within a month or half of it. The school takes the decision to use the direct cutover method around their academic year. Using the direct cutover method, the old system of the school is cut as well as it is overwriting by a new information system (Dennis, Wixom and Tegarden 2015). It causes the changeover from the old system to a new system when the new system becomes operational. However, the school identifies that this method involves a high risk of loss of data. With the use of this method, the company is unable to change the old system as a backup option. Due to this reason, the IT Consultant recommends the phased operation to us. Phased operation process is working into various phrases. The implementation of the new system is done into modules. The entire system is provided to the some of the authorized users. As the previous approach faces risks, therefore the phrased operation reduces errors as well as failures to the implemented module. This phrased operation is also less expensive. The phased operation for the Willowbrook School consists of two phases such as billing and system. In the billing phase, the financial works are done. It starts at the month of April; it is installed within one, and half months before the aftercare billing process is completed. The system phase allows a timeframe of one and half month to do the functional billing, testing of the entire system, etc. Conclusion It is concluded that the IT Consultant of the Willowbrook School recommends the requirement of client server architecture for their school. The architecture should be three-tier so that it can easily handle the administrative as well as financial functions. The new information system tracks the enrollments, aftercare billing as well as payments. The proposed system monitors the process of tracking, reviewing the cost as well as reporting. As an application development methodology, Agile methodology is used as it delivers the development process within the estimated timeline in a proper manner. As the changeover process, phase operation is used in order to install the new information system for the school. Various types of testing are done such as system, user-interface, performance, security and access control as well as configuration testing to completely implement the system for the school. After the testing of the system, the staffs of the administrative department, teachers as well as volunteers are required to train so that they can handle the entire system efficiently. Data conversion is required as previously the administrative department uses a spreadsheet as well as word to enter the details of the students. 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